Milgram Behavioural Study of Obedience Essay

The method used by Milgram was the laboratory experiment. The main advantage that Milgram had with this method was the amount of control he had over the situation. He controlled what the participants saw, heard and experienced and was able to manipulate their behaviour through what they were exposed to. This method also allowed accurate measurement of variables and the clear standardised procedures meant that replication was possible. The disadvantages of this method include low ecological validity and the influence of demand characteristics on the participants and it could be argued that they were behaving in the way that they thought was expected of them rather than producing natural behaviour. Milgram has also been heavily criticised regarding the ethics of this study (see below) . Was the sample representative? Milgram’s sample was a self-selected sample of 40 males obtained through advertising. This could be regarded as being a biased sample as they were all male American citizens. They were also volunteers and the majority of the population is unlikely to volunteer to take part in research and those who do may be atypical of the target population in some way. Hence there may be problems generalising from these results. What type of data was collected? The data collected was quantitative in that it involved measuring participants’ obedience level, numerically, in terms of how far up the voltage scale they were prepared to go. This type of data has the advantage of being easy to compare and statistically analyse. However, Milgram included no qualitative descriptions of why the participants obeyed or how they felt during the experiment although there are a few brief descriptions of participants’ behaviour during the experiment. Does this study have high or low Ecological Validity? As with all laboratory experiments there are problems with Milgram’s study regarding its ecological validity. It involved an extremely unusual task carried out under very artificial conditions and as such, is likely to have produced very unnatural behaviour from the participants. This has implications for the extent to which we can generalise from these results to real life situations and it can be argued that the study tells us nothing about obedience in everyday life but simply shows us how obedient these people were, in this environment, performing this task. Was the study ethical? Milgram’s study was probably one of the most unethical pieces of psychological research ever conducted. It can be criticised in terms of almost all the British Psychological Society Ethical Guidelines including informed consent, deception, right to withdraw and protection from harm. However, in Milgram’s defence, we can argue that he did not expect the participants to obey to the extent that they did or to find the task so stressful. He also conducted a thorough debriefing and follow-up monitoring of his participants. A survey conducted one year later revealed that 84% of the participants were glad to have taken part in the study and psychiatric examinations of them showed that none had suffered long term harm. What does this study tell us about Individual and Situational Explanations of behaviour? The individual explanation for the behaviour of the participants would be that it was something about them as people that caused them to obey, but a more realistic explanation is that the situation they were in influenced them and caused them to behave in the way that they did. Some of the aspects of the situation that may have influenced their behaviour include the formality of the location, the behaviour of the experimenter and the fact that it was an experiment for which they had volunteered and been paid. How useful is this research and to what extent can it be applied to everyday life? As stated previously, the stimulus for this study was the Holocaust and this study has contributed significantly to the discussions regarding the behaviour of the Germans at this time. In particular, it provides strong evidence against the ‘Germans are different’ hypothesis. It also gives a valuable insight into the power of situations and of authority. The results suggest that we have a natural tendency to obey authority figures even when we feel that what we are being asked to do is morally wrong. However, the applications are restricted by the methodological limitations such as low ecological validity and an unrepresentative sample.

Description of a Subculture: Gymnastics Competitive Team Essay

Culture is the ways of thinking, acting and the material objects that form a people’s way of life. Within each culture there are many subcultures, which are cultural groups within a larger culture with similar beliefs. Many times, the subculture a person belongs to provide him/her with a sense of identity and belonging. Subcultures are characterized by their origin and the characteristics that define it. While growing up I belonged to many different subcultures, but my main one was my gymnastics competitive team. This was definitely the most influential and time-consuming subculture I was a part of and is considered a special interest subculture. Along with its origin, subcultures also have a set of characteristics that are used systematically and provide one with information. Characteristics include boundary rigidity, language/jargon, values, identifying signs, the degree of attachment and initiation rituals. Boundary rigidity refers to the subcultures’ exclusivity and how one can become a part of it. My gymnastics team was considerably exclusive. The team I was on consisted of about seven or eight people, who all started at the young age of about three or four. As little kids we practiced in hopes of becoming good enough to be part of the competitive team, knowing that it required a certain level of skills and commitment. This fact alone shows the high degree of exclusivity because not just anyone could become a part of this subculture, one had to work hard for it. As a part of the team, I had to be fully committed to giving up the majority of my free time. Most days, if I wasn’t at school I was at the gym practicing. Due to the high degree of exclusivity, I would consider this subculture to be very structured. There was always a schedule to follow: when to be at the gym, what events to practice and for how long, etc. Being a part of the team is significantly exclusive, but leaving is not necessarily as difficult, it was just very rare. After all of the hard work and time that a gymnast invests in the team, they usually don’t give it up easily. Therefore, this subculture has strong boundary rigidity. Another characteristic of a subculture is the language/jargon used by its members. Language can refer to the way its members walk, talk, carry  themselves, the slang words used, etc. Within my gymnastics team there was a lot of language we used that set us apart from other subcultures. The technical terms used in the sport of gymnastics is one of the obvious language barriers because only those who are familiar with the sport understand the terms and their meanings. The way gymnasts carry themselves also sets them apart from others. An example of this is when I was on the track team, a coach pointed out that I ran like a gymnast. Although I was not with my teammates or talking about gymnastics, the way I ran was an indicator of the subculture I was associated with. Values are another characteristic of a subculture. These are the group’s ideas about what is right or wrong, what’s important, how they view other people and so forth. As a part of a competitive gymnastics team, I grew up learning the values my coaches instilled in me time and time again. Things like hard work, dedication and commitment. As a part of the team, we all valued our coaches opinions and demands for what we were expected to do. At a young age we learned to that if you want something, you have to work to get it. We also learned that practicing and being in the gym was what was important, while free time and friends were not. Additionally, identifying signs is another characteristic of a subculture. This can be interpreted as labels, what the members are wearing/listening to/using and inside jokes or nicknames. There are three types of signs: private, public and covert. Private signs are displayed only to the subculture, public signs are shown to everyone and everyone knows what they mean and covert signs are displayed publicly, but are only known by the subculture. Some signs associated with gymnastics is the â€Å"DG† label, which is a brand of gymnastics sports wear. Most people wearing this participate in gymnastics and only those familiar with the sport would know the labels association with gymnastics. Another sign is the â€Å"USA Gymnastics† bumper sticker. This is a public sign that clearly shows association with the subculture. Furthermore, as a team we tend to become very close, so there tends to be a lot of inside jokes and nicknames used. These are covert signs because we would shout the nicknames or talk about the inside jokes publicly, but only we would know their meaning. The degree of attachment is another characteristic of a subculture. This refers to the groups’ importance to its members. As a gymnast, my degree of attachment to my team was very high. Having been involved in the sport for the majority of my childhood, I considered the sport my life. I would eat, sleep and breathe gymnastics; when I wasn’t doing it, I was thinking about it. Being on a competitive team, I would spend a lot of time at the gym, so my team and coaches became like a second family. At this point, it wasn’t just the sport I was attached to, it was the friends I made and the experiences I continued to have. As I grew older, my degree of attachment to the sport heightened. The sport became more demanding and as a result, the degree of attachment continued to rise. Even to this day, although I am not an active member of this subculture, I still consider myself a part of it and I am still very much attached. Once a gymnast, always a gymnast. Initiation rituals are the characteristics of a subculture that lets one know when they are a part of the group. For gymnastics, there was no set initiation ritual. You knew you were a part of the team when you finally achieved the skills required and the head coach asked you to start practicing with the team. Throughout ones’ life, he/she is a part of many different subcultures. For me, the most influential subculture I was a part of was my competitive gymnastics team. This is a special interest subculture with many characteristics that set it apart from other subcultures. It gave me my sense of identity, as well as a sense of belonging. It is where I devoted most of my time and energy and will forever be a part of who I am.

Early Ages Essay

The Middle Ages is a catchall phrase often used by historians alluding to the thousands of years between the fall of the Roman Empire and the period of discovery and reawakening. The term Middle Ages was coined during the period that followed it, which was the Renaissance (Roseinwein, 2008). Since people from the Renaissance period thought of themselves as â€Å"advanced and civilized,† they deemed the time between them and the earlier world as the â€Å"Middle Age† (2008). The term derived from the Latin medium, which means middle and aevium, referring to age (2008). The Early Middle Ages, which occurred from 5th – 8th centuries, was dominated by Christianity which eventually became the rationale for uniting Europe culturally and linguistically (Herrin, 2002, p. 609). It was also a period marked by distinctions of social classes- the noble, the peasants and the clergy, with peasants populating more (Kamien, 1998, p. 62). This was the reason by medieval society was often described as a period with lack of food supply, poor agriculture, and poor economic conditions (p. 612). As aforementioned, the Early Middle Ages brought forth the importance of religion, specifically that of the Roman Catholic Church. It was during this time when the Holy Roman Empire was established. . One outstanding work from this period and perhaps had the earliest record was medieval music, particularly the Gregorian chant. The Gregorian chant was the official music of the Roman Catholic Church (Kamien, 1998, p. 65). Although the Gregorian chant was named in honor of Pope Gregory I, it was said that the pope was in fact not its creator (p. 65). Historians accounted the existence of Gregorian account or what they believed was its evolution to psalm singing in Jewish synagogues in the first centuries after Christ (p. 65). However the case may be, Pope Gregory could still be held responsible for the popularity of the Gregorian chant. The Gregorian chant is actually a body of unaccompanied vocal music. It was meant to set the mood for certain religious services (Kamien, 1998, p. 65). Set in Latin, Gregorian chants swept the music of the Early Middle Ages. Gregorian chant is like no other music for has no meter nor regular rhythms (p. 65). However, it is this distinct characteristic that makes the Gregorian chant a somewhat free-flowing disposition. Listening to a Gregorian melody invokes serenity, as if disengaging the listener from any anxieties. It is considered monophonic since it is music for one line and is sung in unison. It is said that there are only few names of Gregorian chant composers. This is because composers did not think of themselves as composers but as conduits of the voice of God. One of the most known contributors of the Gregorian chant was Hildegard (p. 68). A nun, Hildegard composed O Successores (You Successors), a chant intended to give praise to the â€Å"holy confessors who are successors of Christ† (p. 68). In the period that followed the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the predominant sound continued to be unaccompanied vocal music. However, the dawn of the Baroque period saw the musical style embracing the use of musical instruments like the harpsichord, violin and viola (Kamien, 1998, p. 104). Likewise, the melody has become wider instead of the narrow range that accompanied the Gregorian chant. While the Renaissance period still had Mass music, the Baroque period ushered in opera, sonata and concertos (pp. 100-115). Church music, especially the Lutheran service, was called a church cantata (p. 129). Whereas the Middle Ages was limited to the culture of the Church, the succeeding periods created new attitudes- that of showing that people have the capacity to create and shape their world instead of merely serving as conduits. The Gregorian chants, which was passed on by oral traditions, ebbed away slowly until a 1994 release of ‘Chant† by the Benedictine monks of Santo Domingo de Silos. This made Gregorian chant popular again due its similarity with New Age Music- smooth, uniform and non confrontational. The Early Middle Ages may have focused on sublime spirituality but the beauty of it has emanated throughout the centuries. Listen to a church hymn and feel how it has evolved from a simple, monophonic music to the finely crafted yet polyphonic texture of today. References Herrin, J. E. (2002). Early Middle Ages. In The new encyclopedia Britannica (Vol. 16, pp. 609-612) USA: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. Kamien, R. (1998). Music an appreciation 3rd ed. USA: McGraw-Hill. Rosenwein, B. (2008). Middle Ages. Retrieved February 5, 2009, from Microsoft Encarta Web site: http://encarta. msn. com/text_761578474___0/Middle_Ages. html

Nursing Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Nursing Theory - Essay Example The aim of this paper is to describe a concept from a particular nursing theory. The excerpt will also describe the application of the concept to the nursing practice as well as to particular domains. The nursing theory to derive the concept is the Virginia Henderson’s need theory. The theory includes a definition of nursing as well as the description of the roles of a nurse, in addition to enumerating the 14 components that comprise the basic nursing care. Henderson nursing theory has four major concepts namely; individual, environment, health, and nursing. This paper will describe the nursing concept. The nursing concept supports temporarily a person without necessary knowledge, will, and strength to satisfy more than one of the 14 basic needs. The concept also helps as well as supports the person in attainment of independence as well as in life activities. The concept brings out the role of nurses as that of serving to ensure the completeness of the patient or to make them whole or independent. The classic definition of nursing according to Henderson is that, â€Å" I say that the nurse does for others what they would do for themselves if they had the strength, the will, and the knowledge. But I go on to say that the nurse makes the patient independent of him or her as soon as possible (Henderson, 2000).† The concept also shows that the nurse is required to conduct the physician’s therapeutic plan. Similarly, the individualized care is the outcome of the creativity of the nurse in planning for care. The concept also reveals the use of nursing research for instance in categorized nursing that involves nursing care and in non nursing situations like cleanliness, ordering supplies, and serving food (Sitzman & Lisa, 2004). The Nature of Nursing reveals that the nurse is and ought to be an independent practitioner, practice legally, as well as having the capability to make judgments as long as she is not conducting diagnosis. Additionally, th is nature dictates that the nurse should be in a position to prescribe treatment for the illness and able to make a prognosis. All these roles describe the functions of the physicians. The concept also reveals that the nurse should possess the knowledge to conduct individualized practice as well as human care. Additionally, the nurse should be a scientific problem solver. The role of a nurse according the Nature of Nursing is to get into the skin of the patient and supplement his or her strength with knowledge or will as per his or her needs. It is the responsibility of the nurse to assess the requirements of the individual patient, assist person to meet their health need. Additionally, to offer an environment in which the person can manage their activities without aid. The classical definition of Henderson nursing claims that he feels that the nurse perform on behalf of others what they would accomplish of they had the knowledge, will as well as the strength. The concept continues to claim that the nurse makes the patient to become independent as soon as possible (Sitzman & Lisa, 2004). Discussion of how the Nursing Concept may be applied in any Domain of Nursing Practice The nursing concept of the Henderson’s need theory may be applied in numerous domains such as nursing education and nursing research as explained below. Influence on Nursing Education The nursing concept has contributed enormously to the basis of many nursing schools. To begin with is the

Rhetorical Analysis Memo Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Rhetorical Analysis Memo - Essay Example He attempts to prove that he is similar to whites by doing everything that the Americans do. He speaks perfect, unaccented English to show that he is no less than Americans discriminative against race and other immigrants.Liu appeals to the sympathetic emotions of the audience by admitting that he had never been a victim of discrimination (Liu 1). Liu proceeds to tell about the betrayal he earned from his hair. The hair betrayal instance shows how petty his discriminators were. Liu’s curse arose from his hair that failed to feather back. The hair remained straight, rigid, and wiry and continued to grow in the wrong way as he adds on. The nature of this discrimination was cruel as the discriminators blamed Liu’s natural being. It pushed him towards blaming his Chinese genes, a factor that he could neither moderate nor change. Liu lived a disgusting and complicated life trying every day to live other people’s lives. Liu’s text reveals seclusion that dominated relations between Whites and Asians in America. He views the blending and assimilation as cruel and fair giving justifying evidences. The reader can tell how Liu’s life at school was more complicated since the American tutors extended discrimination to

Whether music is allowed according to the islamic shari'a Essay

Whether music is allowed according to the islamic shari'a - Essay Example It is imperative to be aware of what our religion teaches us about music, acceptance and tolerance of music, and to what extent we are permitted to listen to music. For this we need to refer to the Quran, Hadith and sayings of the Rightly Guided Caliphs and Prophet’s companions. According to these sources, music has been termed as ‘haraam’ in our religion. Interpreters of the Holy Quran have identified the term â€Å"lahwal hadith’ as listening and singing songs, buying music and buying instruments for amusement. Sayyidana Abdullah Ibne Mas`ood, a close companion of the Holy Prophet was inquired the meaning of the phrase â€Å"lahwal hadith’ and he answered, â€Å"I swear by Him besides whom there is no other God, that it refers to ghinaa (singing), (Inter-Islam, 2001).† It is believed that he repeated this statement thrice and his views have been seconded by the Four Caliphs, the prominent Sahaba and other reliable personalities in Islam. Music is forbidden and also regarded as a major sin in the Muslim religion. Playing of musical instruments is also a major sin hence it is haraam to play the guitar, piano, drums etc. Imam Ali ibne Musa Reza says, â€Å"And to be engrossed in musical instruments is also one of the great sins,1 (Bhimji, Saleem).† A verse from Surah Luqman in the Holy Quran is often offered as a proof of prohibition of music, ‘And there are among men those who purchase idle talk in order to mislead others from Allahs path without knowledge, and who throw ridicule upon it. For such there will be a humiliating punishment.† The word â€Å"idle talk’ here refers to the word ‘lahwal hadith’ which has been discussed earlier. This word has been interpreted in two more ways but they refer to shirk (polytheism) and diverting people from Allah’s worship which takes us to the same idea of engaging in prohibited activities (Bilaal, 1986,

Analysis of Letter to the American people Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Analysis of Letter to the American people - Essay Example to dissolve in religious frenzy that prompts him to submit: â€Å"(Q2) As for the second question that we (bin Laden) want to answer: What are we calling you to, and what do we want from you? (1) The first thing that we are calling you to is Islam. (Letter). Thus bin Laden is merely a religious salesman and because of this does not possess the credibility to speak for the Islamic world regarding other issues. Firstly, the charges he levels against US support of Israel seem vacant in light of certain realities. He accuses us, saying, â€Å"As for the first question: Why are we fighting and opposing you? The answer is very simple: (1) Because you attacked us and continue to attack us... You attacked us in Palestine.† (Letter) Of course by this he means through our support of Israel, Palestinians have suffered. Or does he? Many critics point out that al Qaeda has been conspicuously absent from any efforts to help the Palestinians in any way other than vocal support for suicide bombers, the satisfaction of which is reflected in his statement... "Think not of those who are killed in the way of Allah as dead. Nay, they are alive with their Lord, and they are being provided for. They rejoice in what Allah has bestowed upon them from His bounty and rejoice for the sake of those who have not yet joined them, but are left behind (not yet martyred) that on them no fear shall come, nor shall they grieve. They rejoice in a grace and a bounty from Allah, and that Allah will not waste the reward of the believers." [Quran 3:169-171] (Letter) He attempts to prove a point, and it’s a religious one having nothing to do with the Palestinians securing their own state—a position forwarded by many American diplomats over the years and just recently given as a stated goal of the Obama administration. This goal, as it appears at the moment, comes over the objections of the new Israeli leadership. â€Å"...you attacked us in Palestine,† is a clear effort to connect the Palestinians with

Feminist Principles and Practices in Geography Essay

Feminist Principles and Practices in Geography - Essay Example They explored feminist contributions from ecological movement, black, feminist and gay movements, the forces of nationalism, and so on. They find out that each and every one of these oppositional cultures possessed a distinctive geography, which is a vital part of their ability to survive and contest dominant orders. (Peet & Thrift, 1989, p. 21) So what kind of feminist critical practice does the new geography of identity foster' First, let it be said that feminist criticism has not been and should not be limited to discussions of identity and subjectivity. But since these issues have been so foundational for much feminist criticism, it is important for us to think through the implication of the new geography for work that continues to explore the production and reception of women's writing and the textuality of gender. Second, feminist critical practice focused on questions of identity and subjectivity has already begun to change significantly as a result of the new geographics. The initial incursion of women's issues and feminist analysis into urban geography was an angry one. Early writers argued that geographers had ignored women's activities and that this distorted both the reality of women's lives and the understanding of human-environmental relations. They said that geographers were building models on the basis of family forms and gender-based movement patterns, which no longer existed. Yet this incursion was also a cautious one. As with any attempt to introduce new content into a discipline developed in its absence, people moved warily. They looked for footholds, places in existing frameworks for women's new and unratified patterns. (Peet & Thrift, 1989, p. 111) Existing frameworks did not appear to offer many such footholds. Despite the pioneering efforts of a few humanists and historical materialists, at this point still zealously and often dogmatically explicating their respective philosophies, urban geography was largely a spatial science. It focused on attempts to explain and predict patterns of movement using models, which extrapolated from empirical evidence of human, and commodity movement in the past. The patterns women created were unpredictable and even inexplicable in terms of this kind of science. Demographic predictions foundered, victims of the failure to acknowledge the growing campaigns around fertility control and new family forms. The 'units' of demographic change acquired unexpected political convictions and made themselves known as complex, conscious beings. (Peet & Thrift, 1989, p. 111) Similarly, discussion of residential location and the categorisation of socio-economic status were disordered by unforeseen, two-incom e families. Journey-to-work researchers were perplexed by women's apparently erratic non-maximizing movements, which were punctuated by trips to childcare, shops, and childrens' teachers (Monk & Hanson 1982). Initially, such problems

The process of assessing of need and risk in a given case Essay

The process of assessing of need and risk in a given case - Essay Example Secondly, social workers must, with every chance they get, to teach society about the rights of diverse individuals to all members of the society, thus preventing or decreasing the chances of discrimination or oppression. Finally, social workers should address chances of unfair treatment being received by diverse individuals. The application of social work is a case-to-case basis, no plan of action can be applied to two different scenarios. Thus, to determine the plan of action in a specific case, the assessment of needs and risks should be done for every individual or institution in question. In this paper, I will discuss the case of a British geriatric couple, Jo and Vivian, who are anxious about the possibility of being sent to a nursing home because of their medical condition. Before visiting the couple, I will enumerate the needs and risks this couple has, and with this, I will give a list of pre-interview list of means to address the issues of Jo and Vivian.. NEEDS AND RISKS In this part of the report, the needs and risks of Jo and Vivian are discussed. ... In the case of Jo and Vivian, such difficulty initially started when Vivian had to resign to take care of Jo, who, in that time, was starting to feel the debilitating effects of arthritis. Making things worse, Vivian suffers from depression, and needs to undergo medication also. Without someone else to pay for their basic and additional needs, the lack of resources to pay for their special health care makes them susceptible to other risks, such as injury and complications Further health issues. Even without illnesses, geriatric individuals such as Jo, age 87, and Vivian, age 63, undergo physical changes that impair their ability to perform day-to-day activities, as many and as often as they could back in their younger days. As a person ages, he/she develops poor eyesight, hearing loss, weak balance, and painful walking. The risk of injuries resulting from these age-dependent physical limitations must be addressed accordingly. To address these health issues, they need someone to look after them on a regular basis, providing them their food, helping them take a bath and change clothes, giving them the right amount of medicines on the time it is needed, and ensuring the injury-free environment at home.. Unfortunately, Sam, the district nurse, and Chris, the good friend, are not enough to help the couple in their regular activities such as eating and taking a bath, simply because they are not with Jo and Vivian most of the time. Usually, a member of their nuclear family takes the responsibility of taking care of their elders, either by sending them in nursing homes or taking care of them in the comforts of their own home. But in this case, Jo and Vivian do not have

Self Esteem of Students with Specific Learning Difficulties within a Essay

Self Esteem of Students with Specific Learning Difficulties within a Secondary School - Essay Example The examination explores theoretical and practical ideas about self esteem among dyslexic learners and makes conclusions based on data gathered through students self-assessment and standardized beginning and end assessment tests. The investigation demonstrates that there is a correlation between the Wave 3 Literacy Intervention Programme and the increase in self-esteem of special learners with dyslexia. After a 10-week programme, majority of the students obtained an average ratio of 3.1 which is the desired outcome for the project. The value of Wave 3 Literacy Intervention is thereby established, while looking forward to revisions by way of enriching the intervention programme, especially for special learners who have undergone the programme several times. Introduction â€Å"I've learned that people will forget what you said, people will forget what you did, but people will never forget how you made them feel.† Maya Angelou. This quote, for me, sums up the important position t eachers have and the potential influence they have on their students. I may not be a Socrates, Confucius or Jesus, but I do feel I am a great teacher when I can touch hearts and will, in addition to imparting knowledge and skills to prepare a generation of learners for constructive contemporary living. In this present research activity, I become privileged to teach special learners suffering dyslexia. Soon enough, I face the reality that dyslexics find the school an unpredictable battleground in which they are unskilled to exist ( Scott 2004, p. 55). More particularly, Scott notes that ‘for the vast majority of dyslexic children and adults, school has been a place of psychological and often physical torture. Dyslexia is described as a learning disability in children which hinders their ability to read, write, spell and sometimes speak. Manifested to be either mild or severe in children, neurologists perceive that it is â€Å"never too late to improve their language skillsâ₠¬  (Medicine Net 2012, p.1). Many, although not all, of my specific learning difficulty students come to me burdened with self esteem issues, feeling that they have already failed too many times and fearful that they are about to fail again. While empathy fills me with their suffering, I do not see this condition to be insurmountable, given my awareness of modern approaches to student learning and maturation. At school, failure in literacy has huge knock-on effects for the whole academic curriculum and with all subjects. Failing to read and write is a very public failure (Scott, 2004). Any student with limited proficiency in English including specific disabilities related to literacy runs the risk of being left behind by his or her peers. This brief investigation into the effectiveness of Wave 3 interventions and their potential in raising the self esteem of students is borne not only out of my university studies but a genuine interest in dyslexic students, their need to be heard a nd how I can best serve them through my practice. It is obvious to me that a student’s self esteem has a direct impact on their learning. Educators define learning as â€Å"a long term change in mental representations or associations as a result of experience† (Omrod 2000, p. 10). As a school teacher I can provide that learning

French Revolution Essay Example for Free

French Revolution Essay Modernity by itself is a very abstract concept which can be associated with all new experiences in history. It is largely temporal because what is modern today is the old or obsolete tomorrow. Modernity is said to be a logic of negation because it tends to give importance to the present over the past, and at the same time also frowns over the present with respect to the future. From a purely historical perspective however, the society which evolved in Europe after the French Revolution of 1789 can be termed as modern in so much so that there is a marked difference or break in the way of thinking, living and enterprise between the societies after and before the French Revolution. The evolution of the modern society was not a process that happened overnight. The roots of the modern society and its gradual evolution can be traced back to the beginning of the eighteenth century. In fact the period from that point in history to the French Revolution is termed as the period of intellectual Enlightenment when there was a radical change in philosophy, science, politics, arts and culture. It was on these new forms of knowledge that the foundation of the modern society or modernity was based. Defining the Traditional Many scholars have tried to analyze the basic or instinctive nature of human beings in attempts to track back how modernity could have affected the core individual. In his book Leviathan, Hobbes deduced that in an environment uninfluenced by artificial systems or in a ‘state of nature’ human beings would be war like and violent, and their lives would consequently be solitary, poor, brutish and short. Rousseau however contradicts Hobbes. He claims that humans are essentially benevolent by nature. He believed in the ‘noble savage’ or the concept that devoid of civilization human beings are essentially peaceful and egalitarian and live in harmony with the environment – an idea associated with Romanticism. Human beings have however lived in communities and formed societies since the very early ages. In what is now known as the ancient world or the world of classical pagan antiquity typical of the societies of Greece and Rome, the concept of the ‘new’ or ‘change’ was absent. Time, like the seasons, was supposed to move in cyclical order, repeating itself with regularity cycle after cycle with nothing new or changed to break away from the established order. The people were steeped in more superstitious and religious beliefs which ruled almost every aspect of their lives. Christianity brought about changes in the belief systems of the ancient world. Christianity postulated that time was linear, that it began from the birth of Jesus Christ and would end with the apocalypse and the second coming of Jesus. This was a linear concept of time that moved in a straight line and not in a cycle that kept coming back to the same point. The Foundations of Modernity It was during the Enlightenment period that the Christian concepts of time and history were secularized to give way to the modern approach to change and progress. There were many other basic changes during the Enlightenment. The key ideas which formed the basis of the enlightenment period were autonomy and emancipation, progress and the improvement of history and universalism. The development of scientific knowledge gave rise to religious skepticism. People were no longer willing to submit blindly to the dictates of ordained religion. In other words they attained emancipation from the shackles of religion that had governed almost all aspects of their lives. This emancipation led to autonomy of the individual. Individuals began to decide for themselves instead submitting to an external authority such as religion. The people now decided by themselves what kind of authority, rules and regulation would be good for them, and such authority must be natural and not supernatural. Enlightenment encouraged criticism. Enlightenment thinkers did not hold anything sacred and freely criticized, questioned, examined and challenged all dogmas and institutions in their search for betterment or progress. Thinkers such as Voltaire defended reason and rationalism against institutionalized superstition and tyranny. The belief that there could and should be a change for the better came to be a prominent characteristic of modernity. The critical attitude of enlightenment thinker to contemporary social and political institutions paved the way for scientific studies of political and social studies and subsequent evolution of better forms of such institutions. The scientific revolution during the period, culminating in the work of Isaac Newton, presented a very practical and objective view of the natural world to people at large, and science came to be regarded very highly. Scientific inquiry was gradually extended to cover new social, political and cultural areas. Such studies were oriented around the cause-and-effect approach of naturalism. Control of prejudice was also deemed to be essential to make them value free. Enlightenment thinking emphasized the importance of reason and rationality in organization and development of knowledge. The gradual development of the scientific temperament with a paradigm change from the qualitative to the quantitative is also very evident in Europe of the time. People came to believe that they could better their own lot through a more scientific and rational approach to everything. The concept of universalism which advocated that reason and science were applicable to all fields of study and that science laws, in particular, were universal, also grew roots during the period. People began to believe in change, development and progress – all basic tenets of modernity as we know it today. Autonomy to decide for their own good, gave the people the right to choose the form of authority that could lead them as a society or community towards a better future and progress. This opened the doors to the emergence of states with separate and legally defined spheres of jurisdiction. Thus we find that modernity represents a transformation – philosophical, scientific, social, political and cultural – at a definite time in history at a definite spatial location. This transformation also represents a continuum up to the present in so much so that its basic principles are inherent in the societies and nations of today. The period of enlightenment can be seen as one of transition from the ‘traditional’ to the ‘modern’ forms of society, from an age of blind beliefs to a new age of reason and rational. Different Perspectives on development of Modernity Different political and philosophical thinkers have however developed different, and sometimes contradicting, theories of the development of modernity. Friedrich Hegel and Karl Marx are two of the leading thinkers whose theories run counter to each other. For Hegel, the development of modernity was a dialectical process which was governed by the increasing self-consciousness of what he termed as the collective human ‘mind’ or ‘spirit’. According to Hegel, the dialectic process of development of the mind comprised three stages, with two initially contradicting positions synthesizing into a third reconciled position. Human beings live what Hegel called an ‘Ethical Life’ or in a social environment shaped by customs and traditions. This ethical life has three stages: the first is the family, which is dissolved in due course, the second is the ‘civil society’ that a person builds up as a result of his social interactions beyond the family and greater relations, and finally the third stage of the ‘state’ which Hegel defines as the highest form of social reason. For Hegel therefore, the formation of the modern state is the mark of modernity when human beings achieve the ultimate stage of social existence. Hegel believed as individuals or families, human beings are too selfish and self-centered co-exist in harmony and work for development. It is the state that is able to integrate the contradictions of different individuals, and not market forces. Since the state by itself is composed of political institutions, Hegel’s theory equates the development of the modern state or modern political institutions with modernity. Marx took a completely opposing view, when he asserted that material forces drive history. For him the state by itself is not an ideal entity for the integration of human beings into a cohesive whole for their development as a nation or a society. According to him it is the material forces comprising social and economic forces that drive history towards modernity. People engage in production for their means of subsistence, they bind together and form states for the sake of production. Different forms of productions create different class relations. It is to maximize production and gain the maximum benefits and advantages that people bond together in different classes in the form of the modern state. The different ways in which production is organized give rise to complex forms of social organization because a particular mode of production is an entire way of life for the people who are involved in it. For Marx social existence is not consciously determined by human beings, rather, it is the other way round: their social existence determines their consciousness. When there are contradictions between productive forces and the social relationships of production, class conflict arises. For Marx, therefore, modernity is defined by the state of social existence. Marx acknowledges that ‘capitalism has been the most productive mode of production, and it contains the most potential for the realization of human freedom’. This very dynamic characteristic of capitalism is born out of its destructiveness for all traditional social constraints such as religion, nation, family, sex, etc. But it is the same destructiveness and creativeness that creates the experience of modernity in Capitalism. This vital association between capitalism and modernity from none less that Marx himself establishes that the capitalism that evolved after the period of enlightenment in Europe has been acknowledged as the modern era of the period of modernity by Marx. Marx however states that capitalism is exploitative, and because it is exploitative, its full potential cannot be harnessed for the benefit of all. He therefore advocates communism which is a system of planned and conscious production by men and women of their won free will. This brings us to the question whether humanity has already passed through a stage of history that has been termed as modernity, and has moved on to the postmodern era (Mitchell, 2009). Another important point is regarding the placing of modernity. Modernity is understood to be a process that began and ended in Europe, and was later exported to other parts of the world. Thinkers like Marx tend to differ. He saw Capitalism emerge as a ‘rosy dawn’ not in England or the Netherlands but in the production trade and finance of the colonial system (Marx, 1967). Therefore, though the concept of modernity can be defined in various ways, it definitely refers to the process of evolution of the human mind and the society to a point where people were able to come together for their own advantage and benefit and work for unceasing development under a collectively formalized authority such as the nation state. It can also be state with a certain degree of assertiveness that the period from the beginning of the Eighteenth Century to the French Revolution in 1789 actually marked the period of active development of modernity in Europe. The concepts that were nurtured during the period bore fruit immediately afterwards in Europe and the West and later spread to the rest of the world. The world has continued since on very much the same basic principles but with far more advanced technologies and superior social, economic and political approaches. Influence of Modernity on Literature Modernity had a profound influence on literature. As people began to think differently, they also began to write differently. The modernist ideas of religious emancipation, autonomy, reliance on reason, rationality and science, and on development and progress began to find expression in the literature that developed even during the period of enlightenment and thereafter. This new form of literature came to be known as the Modernist Literature. Modernist literature tended to vent expression to the tendencies of modernity. Modernist literature, as also modernist art, took up cudgels against the old system of blind beliefs. Centering around the idea of individualism or the individual mind, modernist literature displayed mistrust of established institutions such as conventional forms of autocratic government and religion. It also tended not to believe in any absolute truths. Simmel (1903) gives an overview of the thematic concerns of Modernist Literature when he states that, â€Å"The deepest problems of modern life derive from the claim of the individual to preserve the autonomy and individuality of his existence in the face of overwhelming social forces, of historical heritage, of external culture, and of the technique of life. † Examples from two Greats A few examples of Modernist literature will serve to make its characteristics more clear. Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650) is considered to be one of the early enlightenment thinkers whose literary works opened the avenues to the modern era. Known as the founder of modern philosophy and the father of modern mathematics, Descartes was a French philosopher, mathematician and scientist whose influence has served to shape the beginnings of Modernist literature. In his famous work, The Discourse on Method, he presents the equally famous quotation ‘cogito ergo sum’ or ‘I think, therefore I am’, which about sums up the very principle of the basis of the modern era. â€Å"I observed that, whilst I thus wished to think that all was false, it was absolutely necessary that I, who thus thought, should be somewhat; and as I observed that this truth, I think, therefore I am (COGITO ERGO SUM), was so certain and of such evidence that no ground of doubt, however extravagant, could be alleged by the sceptics capable of shaking it, I concluded that I might, without scruple, accept it as the first principle of the philosophy of which I was in search† (Descartes, 1637). In this work, Descartes drew on ancients such as Sextus Emiricus to revive the idea of skepticism, and reached a truth that he found to be undeniable. â€Å"Descartes started his line of reasoning by doubting everything, so as to assess the world from a fresh perspective, clear of any preconceived notions. In other words, he rejected man’s reliance on God’s revealed word, placing his own intellect on a higher plain† (McCarter, 2006). David Hume (1711 – 1776) was a philosopher, economist and historian from Scotland, and was considered a notable personality both in western philosophy and of the Scottish Enlightenment movement. In his works, he had a way of projecting the errors of scepticism and naturalism, thus carving out a way for secular humanism. In his most famous work, ‘An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding’, Hume asserts that all human knowledge is imbibed through our senses. He argues that unless the source from which the impression of a certain entity is conveyed to our senses is identified, that entity cannot exist. The logic would nullify the existence of God, a soul or a self. â€Å"By the term impression, then, I mean all our more lively perceptions, when we hear, or see, or feel, or love, or hate, or desire, or will. And impressions are distinguished from ideas, which are the less lively perceptions, of which we are conscious, when we reflect on any of those sensations or movements above mentioned †¦It seems a proposition, which will not admit of much dispute, that all our ideas are nothing but copies of our impressions, or, in other words, that it is impossible for us to think of anything, which we have not antecedently felt, either by our external or internal senses†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Dover Philosophical Classics, 2004) In the same work Hume also postulates two kinds of human reasoning – Relation of Ideas and Matters of Fact. The former involves abstract concepts such as of mathematics where deductive faculty is required, and the later is about empirical experiences which are inductive in nature. This postulate has come to be known as Hume’s Fork. Hume, along with his contemporaries of the Scottish Enlightenment, also proposed that the basis for principles of morals is to be sought in the utility that they tend to serve. This shows the questioning nature of modernist literature not only of religious but also of moral and social norms and values. A very visible influence of modernity is therefore seen in the works of Hume. Present-day Modernist Literature If modernity influenced literature, it also used literature to shift from a philosophical and theoretical domain into the practical lives of people. Modernity could infiltrate into the lives of people through literary works that defined and reiterated the legitimate new modes of classification. Old literary forms with traditional meanings attached to them were reworked, allowing readers to modify or contravene the older meanings. â€Å"This opening-up process allowed readers to glean new meanings that modified or contravened the older ones. In the course of these changes, words, forms, and institutions altered their meaning in British life: they, and the practices they comprised, referred differently†¦. modifying ‘reference potential’ in literature fed back into how readers responded to changes in life†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Rothstein, 2007) In art and literature, many critics view ‘modernism’ as a new trend in the field of art and literature, defined basically by stylistic and structural variations. They would not accept the fact that ‘modernism’, it is basic approach, was the principles of modernity rendered plausible in literature and art. Modernity has always tried to hold up the world in new perspectives. Similarly, modernist literature opens up the world in all its forms – theoretical, philosophical, aesthetical and political – for fresh scrutiny. Even in its present form, modernist literature attempts to break the objective world of the realist. â€Å"Modernist writing †¦ takes the reader into a world of unfamiliarity, a deep introspection, a cognitive thought-provoking experience, skepticism of religion, and openness to culture, technology, and innovation† (Melton, 2010). Modernist literature exhibits a fascination with the workings of the mind, and how reality is reflected by the mind. The questioning of life, with or without the presence of God, is another trademark of the philosophical and theoretical moorings of modernist literature. Charles Darwin’s work challenges God as the Creator and presents the process of natural selection in the survival of life. This led to modernist literature of time travel, of questioning the existence of individuals and the purpose of the universe. Modernism brought about a new openness in the areas of feminism, bisexuality, the family, and the mind. In the world of today, modernist literature still display much of the characteristics of the times in which it first took shape. A very important theme of modernist literature today is a feeling of being alone in the world – a feeling stemming from estrangement or alienation. Characters are often presented as being depressed or angry. A second common trait is that of being in doubt. â€Å"It may be disbelief in religion, in happiness, or simply a lack of purpose and doubt in the value of human life. Finally, a third theme that is prevalent is a search for the truth† (Foster, 2010). Then there is a third theme in which the alienated character is always in the search for truth and seeks answers to a plethora of questions relating to human subjectivity. In all these characteristics are to be found the same questioning nature, the same denouncement of blind beliefs and the same dependence on reason and rationality that the Eighteenth Century enlightenment thinkers had pursued. The character is alienated and estranged because he or she questions all that is deemed not right by his or her own mind; the character questions the beliefs of religion and other institutions which are not based on reasoning; and finally the character seeks answers and the truth. â€Å"Modernist literature encompasses the thematic fingerprints of a rebellious, questioning, disbelieving, meditative, and confident type of form, which was conceived out of a change in the belief of humanity, the mind, a God, and the self brought on by the shift from capitalism to an ever-increasing society of revolutionary changes† (Melton, 2010). References Descartes, R. , 1637, The Discourse on Methods. Dover Philosophical Classics, 2004, David Hume, An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding, Dover Publications Inc. Foster, J. , 2010, Modernism in Literature and History, Available: http://www. helium. com/items/743749-modernism-in-literature-and-history Karl Marx, 1967, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, 3 vols. , New York: International Publishers, 1:703. McCarter, J. , P. , 2006, Literature of the Modern Era, The Puritans’ Home School Curriculum. Melton, L. , 2010, Modernism in Literature and History, Available: http://www. helium. com/items/809291-modernism-in-literature-and-history Mitchell, T. , 2000, The Stage of Modernity, Available: http://www. ram-wan. net/restrepo/modernidad/the%20stage%20of%20modernity-mitchell. pdf Rothstein, E. , 2007, Gleaning Modernity, Earlier Eighteenth Century Literature and the Modernizing Process, Rosemont Publishing and Printing Corp. , Associated University Presses. Simmel, G. , 1093, The Metropolis and Mental Life.

Role Of Education in Sustainable Development Essay Example for Free

Role Of Education in Sustainable Development Essay Sustainable development is that development which will meet the present needs of the community without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Environmental education involves among other things the provision of information, recognizing values, clarifying concepts etc in order to develop skills and attitudes that enable the community to understand and appreciate the relationship between their cultures and their physical surroundings. At international fora, attempts have been made to promote environmental education. In the year 1975 in Belgrade, the program for international environmental education was started followed by the conference in Tsibilisi in 1977, Nevada 1979, Moscow 1987, †¦. . Since then the council of European countries has twice called on member countries to advance on environmental education in all sectors of education. There is required a dominant policy to ensure that the findings of research on environmental science are properly applied to ensure that the world is safe for further development with no further destruction of the natural resources. It is therefore necessary to involve the players in political, economic and cultural sectors in designing environmental programs. By doing this, we will notice that all these players have turned environmentalists and we can expect a conflict of interest of style in the approach of environmental matters. This is because sustainable development is a contested territory with its ownership disputed by forces with very diverse interests. Its thus difficult to foresee any slackening of the effort on those who will continue to impose development to suit their ends invoking â€Å"modernity, national integration, economic growth and other slogans† (Adams 1990, p199). With challenges as these, education is a must in order to bring these interests groups together and come up with sound policy on sustainable  development, infact one that is conscious of future needs. OBSTACLES TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT There are various obstacles to sustainable development which include:- 1. Lack of awareness on issues involved, 2. Political unacceptability of obvious steps forward, 3. Opposition by groups with vested interests, 4. Inadequacy of institutional mechanism for integrating environment and development. SOLUTIONS To overcome these obstacles, there is a feeling among many groups that there is a need to replace the ideas and values that underlie the complex and visible obstacles with a new approach and reshaping of ideas and values. To do this we need not just a modification, but a total revolution of our thinking. This can well be achieved through a well-designed education approach. ROLE OF EDUCATION Education plays a major role in enhancing people’s awareness about bio-diversity conservation as well as sustainable development. It leads to actualization of conservation knowledge and skills which in turn help in broadening people’s knowledge about conservation, thus making them functional members of the society. Education will enlighten stakeholders on various issues relating to sustainable development and bio-diversity conservation. Also education will sensitize them to participate fully in campaigns against any act or development that threaten future sustainability. Consequently, education empowers stakeholders to take increasing charge of their own developments as key ingredients combined with a clear knowledge of environmental constraints and of requirements to meet basic needs. This enables people to understand their need for and importance of biodiversity for now and in the future. It is this education which will enable us realise  that sustainable development confronts not just society, but each of us at the heart of his or her purpose. It invites us to give practical support to the values of social equity, human worth and ecological health. Education questions our readiness to involve ourselves in the struggle for change, it challenges our willingness to contribute in greater measure to the activities of NGO’s and dedicated individuals who campaign on our behalf. Moreover, education asks us to accept that the small beginnings from which so many successful campaigns have started resides within ourselves. As Laszlo (1989) puts it, â€Å"we contemplate changing almost anything on this earth except ourselves,† and this is due to the inner constraints in our visions and values that can only be removed through education. This is because education will explain the need for and importance of attitude and behaviour change in our pursuit for development, as a result we will realise that we owe the future generations what we have today. It is education that will enable us reach a conclusion as Max-reef (1991,P113) explains: -â€Å"I have reached the conclusion that I lack the power to change the world or any significant part of it, I only have the power to change myself. And the fascinating thing is that if I decide to change myself, there is no police force in the world that can prevent me doing so. It is my decision and if I want to do it, I can do it. Now the point is that if I change myself, something may happen as a consequence that may lead to a change in the world†. As such awareness becomes more general, sustainable development will be regarded seriously by the people who really count not just elites but people generally. Education whether formal or informal has been proved to be a powerful tool in promoting changes in the attitudes and perceptions of people about a resource. A series of conferences under the auspices of UNDP have been held to address issues pertaining to the link between sound natural resource management and sustainable development, environmental conservation and improved human welfare. Education for sustainable development will not only create awareness of the  global crisis but must place it at the heart of the curriculum. It must be â€Å"ecological† rather than â€Å"environmental† encouraging broad holistic thinking, teaching the need for structural change and promoting the correct application of reductionist thinking to specific technical problems. It will embrace all the means of the change discussed in this paper and alert stakeholders to the feasibility of alternative practices. Further, education will not only inform stakeholders, but also allow them to participate in decision making process about biodiversity conservation and thus promoting change. Through education, stakeholders will not only become acquinted with one another’s vision about healthy ecosystems but also stimulates them to formulate their own visions relating to biodiversity. It will not only teach them about holism but will require them to think holistically. Holistic thinking is a particularly important means of change for sustainable development because it attempts to figure out the consequences. Holistic approach tries to anticipate the problem â€Å"simple† solutions, create and to identify more satisfactory structural solutions. Holistic thinking led one farmer in Kenya, sickened at having to shoot the elephants ruining his crops, to adopt an alternative form of land use, accommodating not only his own interest but also those of elephants, of tourists who wanted to see elephants and of local people who could supplement their subsistence economy with income from tourism. Education will also help us to see the need of putting people first in all our endeavours in sustainable development and biodiversity conservation. Putting people first means quite simply valuing people for themselves, for what they are rather than for what they can do, or how they can perform in the service of some interest whose ends may be quite radically opposed to the meeting of human need. Putting people first also means empowerment- a process by which those who are or feel excluded from decision making are enabled to participate in it. It involves the transfer of power from those in authority to smaller groups. In some countries this has to begin with establishing or re-establishing political rights and other basic freedoms. (A recent example is the return to free elections in Malawi and Kenya). Only  then can a start be made to provide education and training to raise awareness and allow stakeholders to play an effective role in political process. Empowerment also refers to what Paul Freire, the Brazilian educationist calls â€Å"Conscientization† or education for consciousness, by which communities and individuals become aware of the reasons for their poverty and oppression and begin to discuss what they themselves can do about it without enabling action by the authorities. Ecological education will not only teach about empowerment but will enable stakeholders to fulfil their aspiration by helping them to develop their full range of abilities. By paying equal attention to emotional and intellectual development, education will teach the basic life skills people need to establish identities and grow as individuals. By encouraging creativity, commitment and initiative, it will equip stakeholders to take responsibility for themselves and their future, and to avoid dependency on biodiversity without ensuring its sustainability through sound management practices. It will also focus on relationships and teach what Harrison (1990,p203) calls the â€Å"work of human communication of caring and nurturance, of tending the personal bonds of the community†. It is envisaged that well organised education will also enhance our ability to relate with each other, not just on the level of day to day communication skill, but more importantly by acknowledging others identities and rights to a resource. This education will initiate a process of lifelong growth in awareness and aspiration. An individuals readiness to participate in that process, at however lowly or rudimentary a level, will be more important than acquiring impressive qualifications, for as Paul Freire (1972) points out, we are all â€Å"unfinished† human beings with a commitment to improve â€Å"unfinished† reality. Without the opportunity to develop their potential, individuals can not develop fully in discussions and initiatives on which progress to more sustainable development depends. Therefore, properly resourced and directed education will ensure that all stakeholders become the beneficiaries of the care, concern and skills of others. CONCLUSION In a world where the challenge of sustainable development is an imperative, rather than an option, we can not afford to debar people from participating by making them feel failures, whether academic failures as a result of the rigid application of elitist standards, or social or personal failures as a result of inadequate evolutions of both their needs and their potential. Therefore, I envisage that properly resourced and directed education aimed at encouraging the development of sensitivity, awareness, critical thinking, problem solving and active participation in biodiversity conservation campaigns, will enable stakeholders not only to become aware of the issues and be able to act on that awareness, but will be equipped with the skills required to contribute effectively to the debate. They will learn to plan, organise, communicate with others, develop strategies and create alliances with an aim of promoting sustainable development and ensuring biodiversity conservation.

Chemical Engineering Innovation in Food Production

Chemical Engineering Innovation in Food Production The inherent safety, convenience, availability, nutritional content, aesthetic appeal, and variety that characterize food supplies are a hallmark of modern life. Chemical engineering knowledge can be accredited with improving the conversion of raw foodstuffs into safe consumer products of the highest possible quality. Among those, membrane-based separation and other filtration techniques are most common. Chemical engineers have applied their expertise to chemically synthesize fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides that promote crop growth and protect crops from weeds, insects, and other pests (AlChe, 2009). Its so easy to feel the contribution of chemical engineering in food sector if we observe the morning tea to late night beverage. All processed food stuffs around us is more or less subject to different types of filtration. One of the fastest growing parts of the whole sector is the mineral water and soft drinks sector, which has a sizeable requirement for fine filtration (Suther land, 2010). Modern techniques are used to improve the flavour, texture, nutritional value, safety, appearance and overall aesthetic appeal of various foods. Modern food processing can also improve the quality of life for people with food allergies and for diabetics. Foods processed using aseptic packaging retains their vitamins, minerals, and desired textures, colours, and flavours more effectively than those processed with traditional canning. Nestlà ©, Wal-Mart, Unilever, PepsiCo etc. are some world famous food companies without whom modern life cannot be imagined. Filtration in food processing Filtration is a process where solid particles present in a suspension are separated from liquid or gas employing a porous medium (Srikanth, 2012). Surface, depth and cake filtration are different types based on filtration mechanism. Two types of filtration theory are widely known which are gas filtration theory and liquid filtration theory. These theories have also some limitations. There are some criteria for choice of filter medium such as particle size that has to removed, permeability of clean medium, solid holding capacity of the medium, flow resistance of medium etc. Filter aid is a very important factor which forms a surface deposit to screen out the solids and it also prevents the plugging of the supporting filter medium (Srikanth, 2012). Chemical engineers have invented a variety of engineered processes that allow food processors to remove impure substances to improve food quality, safety, and aesthetics. Todays membrane-based separation is used widely to remove impurities during food processing by pressure to force unwanted substances in food ingredients to pass through a semi permeable membrane and it is also applied majorly in the dairy industry, mainly as a processing phase in production soft cheeses. Chemical engineers strive to maximize the available surface area in filter, reduce membrane pore size, minimize the pressure drop the fluid will experience when flowing through the unit and maximize cost-effectiveness (AIChe, 2009). For food industries, there are some specific requirements to choose filter media such as dissipation of electrostatic charges, high abrasion resistance, available clean-in-place system etc. In this dissertation, some food processing industries have been presented where different types of filtration are the key factor. Among those cane and beet sugar industry, starch and sugar industry, beverage industries like wine, beer etc. are notable. Filtration should be the most prior subject to enhance food safety management of an industry. It can help to remove physical, chemical and other microbiological contaminants with great efficiency. This also focuses on advantages of self-cleaning filters over manual and mechanical cleaning. Advances in filtration technology include the development of continuous processes to replace old batch process technology (Patel R. et al, 2010). FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRIES Chemical engineering innovation in food production If the grass on the other side of the fence appears greener . . . it must be all the fertilizer they are using. Kevin Rodowicz. The food industry is a complex, global collective of diverse businesses that supply much of the food energy consumed by the world population. Before modern engineering advances were widely adopted by the food industry, the variety of foods available at stores were determined by what was produced locally, since transportation limitations predicted the distance that perishable foods could travel (AIChe, 2009). Chemical engineers routinely develop advanced materials and techniques used for, among other things, chemical and heat sterilization, advanced packaging, and monitoring and control, which are essential to the highly automated facilities for the high-throughput production of safe food products (AIChe, 2009). Chemical engineering unit operations and procedures, established for other industrialized reasons, are used by the food industry like drying, milling, extrusion, refrigeration, heat and mass transfer, membrane-based separation, concentration, centrifugation, fluid flow and blending, powder and bulk -solids mixing, pneumatic conveying, and process mode ling, monitoring, and control. Among these, membrane-based separation and other filtration techniques are mostly common (AIChe, 2009). Technological milestones: Over the years, engineered solutions have increased the production of processed fruits and vegetables, dairy, meat and poultry, and seafood products, and have allowed more widespread distribution of such foods. The following are some of the most revolutionary improvements in food processing noted in the Milestones of the Twentieth Century by the Institute of Food Technologists (AIChe, 2009). 1900s: Vacuum packaging, which removes the oxygen from inside the food package, was invented to prolong the shelf life of foods, and the widespread practice of freezing foods began with fruit and fish. The first ready-to -eat cereals using many chemical engineering unit operations appeared as well (AIChe, 2009). 1920s: Fast-freezing practices for foods were first commercialized by Clarence Birdseye, whose name has become practically known with frozen foods. Birdseye found that by blanching vegetables (cooking them for a short time in boiling water) just before freezing, the process could deactivate certain enzymes that cause off-colours and off-flavours, thereby enhancing the quality of the thawed vegetables. The first commercial use of puffing to produce such cereals as Cheerios and puffed rice also began (AIChe, 2009). 1930s: Freeze-drying processes were pioneered in this decade, and frozen foods are dried after deep freezing, in which the entrained water is removed by a process known as sublimation by heating the frozen product in a vacuum chamber. Freeze-dried foods in turn become shelf-stored foods that quickly regain their original flavour, aroma, size, shape, and texture after rehydration. The removal of water slows spoilage, thus providing longer shelf life, and reducing the weight of the food, which makes it cheaper and easier to transport (AIChe, 2009). 1940s: The advent of automated processes to concentrate, freeze, and dehydrate foods enabled a greater variety of foods to be mass-produced and packaged for shipment overseas to military personnel during World War II. Disease-free packaging extremely improved food quality, safety, and nutrient retention (AIChe, 2009). 1950s: During this era, monitored-atmosphere packaging using plastic increased the shelf life of fresh foods. The process controls oxygen and carbon dioxide levels inside the packaging environment to reduce respiration by fruits and vegetables (similar to human breathing) and reduces the amount of off-gas ethylene produced, which delays maturing and damage (AIChe, 2009). 1960s: The first commercial-scale producing machine began producing cold-dried foods and coffee. Advances in aseptic processing allowed shorter heating times for sealed food containers (AIChe, 2009). 1970s: The period of the 1970s saw growing usage in the chemical process industries (paint, textile, oil recovery, pulp and paper). In this decade, the major effects of this technology is in the food and biotechnology processing industries, where ultrafiltration and cross-flow microfiltration are finding increasing uses as a gentle and efficient way of fractionating, concentrating and clarifying a variety of food from milk products, fruit juices and alcoholic beverages to fermentation broths, protein fractions and wastewaters (Cheryan M, 1986). 1980s: Advanced-atmosphere packaging began to be used widely during this era and It is a more progressive difference of controlled-atmosphere packing, in which the head space atmosphere within a food package or the transportation/ storage vessel is modified by flushing it with a blend of inert (nonreactive) gases (AIChe, 2009). 1990s: High-pressure processing was commercially applied first to fresh packaged foods to kill microorganisms that cause spoilage without altering flavours, texture, or appearance (AIChe, 2009). After 2000: Recent food trends are actually based on fat calculation but tasty, healthy and doctor-designed. Different types of cupcakes, cheese, pizza, fast foods etc. are peoples first choice. Also various types of grain made foods are getting popularity day by day (AIChe, 2009). Advances in chemical fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides Early mankind experimented with human and animal wastes, seaweed, ashes and other substances to fertilize crops and increase productivity. Chemical engineers have applied their expertise to chemically synthesize fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides that promote crop growth and protect crops from weeds, insects, and other pests. Today, the use of these products is more important than ever to meet the needs of an ever-expanding population (AIChe, 2009). Fertilizers Nitrogen is the most plentiful part of the air we breathe, present at 79% by volume and a prime nutrient (most often in the form of ammonia). Modern fertilizers stem from a chemical engineering breakthrough pioneered by Fritz Haber in 1908 that developed a process to synthesize ammonia by reacting hydrogen with nitrogen and in 1918, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this discovery (AIChe, 2009). Working with industrialist Carl Bosch, Haber scaled up the successful Haber-Bosch process that allows ammonia to be produced cost-effectively in commercial quantities for use in nitrogen fertilizers. Habers original reaction was carried out under high pressures. The improved ammonia synthesis process carries out the reaction at lower pressures and temperatures, which helps save money by reducing the amount of energy required by the process (AIChe, 2009). Pesticides and herbicides Chemists and chemical engineers have also been helpful in the discovery, synthesis and commercial-scale manufacture of various chemical compounds that are used as pesticides (to kill insects) and herbicides (to kill weeds). For example, chemical engineers discovered that when glyphosate (the primary ingredient in Monsantos widely used herbicide Roundup) is applied to a crop, it inhibits a specific growth enzyme called the EPSP synthase. Glyphosate is rapidly metabolized by weeds, and unlike many other earlier herbicides, it binds tightly to soil so that it does not accumulate in runoff to contaminate surface waters or underground aquifers. According to its manufacturer, it eliminates more than 125 kinds of weeds, but does not affect mammals, birds, fish, or insects (AIChe, 2009). Advanced food processing techniques Today, imaginative and effective engineered approaches many drawn directly from the chemical engineers toolbox routinely add nutrients, improve aesthetic appeal (in terms of a foods flavours, texture, and appearance), enable longer distance transport (leading to multi-seasonal availability), extend shelf life, and remove microorganisms that contribute to spoilage and are responsible for food-borne illnesses. Modern food processing can also improve the quality of life for people with food allergies (by removing or neutralizing the proteins and other substances that create allergic reactions in certain people) and for diabetics (by reducing sugar content and providing sugar-free alternatives). The roasting of coffee beans requires exceptionally precise control of the chemical and physical reactions over time. Depending on the progressive bean temperature experienced during roasting, final flavours characteristics can vary widely. Chemical engineers have devised ways to make timely adjustments to the roaster to moderate airflow rates and manipulate bean temperatures without changing the flavours (AIChe, 2009). Sterilizing and packaging perishable foods Sterilization is a key aspect of any food -packaging operation. The ability to sterilize foods to protect them against spoilage by oxidation, bacteria, and moulds has always presented an important engineering challenge. Throughout history, people have experimented with the use of dehydration, smoking, salting, pickling, candying and the use of certain spices. They include high-temperature pasteurization and canning, refrigeration and freezing, chemical preservatives (using such compounds as sulphite, sodium nitrite, ethyl formate, propionic acid, sorbic acid, and benzoic acid), and irradiation (AIChe, 2009). Pasteurization In the early years, no one knew how Nicolas Apperts process preserved foods successfully, but the ability to can foods meant that Napoleons army fighting a long way from home could be fed properly and safely and that British sailors could maintain a healthier diet by feasting on fruits, vegetables, and meats while on long voyages overseas. More than 50 years later, Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) explained the mystery by proving that the growth of microorganisms is the primary cause of food spoilage and food -borne illnesses and that a high percentage of them could be killed by heating liquids to about 130 °F (55 °C) or higher, for relatively short periods, without altering the chemical makeup of the food. This simple process became known as pasteurization and was quickly and widely adopted (AIChe, 2009). Aseptic packaging First introduced in the U.S. in the early 1960s, it provides major advantages over traditional canning. It allows many products once considered perishables such as milk and juice to be packaged, distributed, and stored for months or longer without the need for refrigeration, irradiation, or chemical preservatives. In general, during aseptic packaging, both the food and packaging are sterilized at high temperatures for very short periods (AIChe, 2009). The original technology superheated steam to sterilize cans. Pressurized heat exchangers and holding tubes allows the foods and beverages to be sterilized at around 300 °F. Foods processed using aseptic packaging retains their vitamins, minerals, and desired textures, colours, and flavours more effectively than those processed with traditional canning. In 1989, aseptic-packaging technology was voted the food industrys top innovation of the last 50 years by the Institute of Food Technologists (AIChe, 2009). Some world famous food companies In terms of corporate size, food manufacture has no companies to match the giants of other sectors (Sutherland, 2010). Although still by far the largest of the food producers, Nestlà ©, with annual sales in 2009 of about $95 billion (well down on 2008), is only a quarter of the size of the largest petroleum companies such as Exxon or Shell (Sutherland, 2010). (There are, of course, food retailers much larger than Nestlà ©, especially Wal-Mart whose 2009 sales of $400 billion made it the third largest company in the world in terms of turnover, with Carrefour a long way behind at second in the list of retailers, at $130 billion (Sutherland, 2010). The next largest company classified as a food producer is Unilever, with total 2009 sales of $53 billion (although the Unilever picture is complicated by its extensive range of non-food household goods businesses) (Sutherland, 2010). Unilever is closely followed by Cargill, the largest private company in the USA, and by Archer-Daniels-Midland, although both of these are large natural product commodity dealers as well. Then come ConAgra, Kraft Foods, Danone, Kellogg, General Mills, and H J Heinz (Sutherland, 2010). For some time, the leading beverage companies have been the soft drink makers Pepsico (2009 sales of $43 billion) and Coca Cola ($32 billion), some distance ahead of the brewers (Sutherland, 2010). This picture changed in 2008 with the purchase of Anheuser-Busch by InBev (itself the fairly recent merger of Interbrew and AmBev) to create a company larger than Coca Cola (although still behind Pepsi) and second in size of the brewers is now SABMiller (a 2002 creation), followed by Heineken and then Carlsberg (Sutherland, 2010). Further consolidation in the beverage sector is being driven by a search for markets, because beer drinking can be very regional. Thus, Heineken has acquired the beer business of Femsa in Mexico which holds 40% of its domestic market and nearly 10% of that in Brazil and one of the fastest growing parts of the whole sector is the mineral water and soft drinks sector, which has a sizeable requirement for fine filtration (Sutherland, 2010). FILTRATION Definition Filtration is a process whereby solid particles present in a suspension are separated from the liquid or gas using a porous medium, which retains the solid but, allows the fluid to pass through. It is a common operation used widely in sterile products, bulk drugs and in liquid oral formulation. The suspension to be filtered is called slurry. The porous medium used to retain the solids is known as filter medium and the accumulated solids on the filter are referred as filter cake and the clear liquid passing through the filter is filtrate (Srikanth, 2012). The pores of the filter medium are smaller than the size of particles to be separated. When feed is passed over the filter medium, the fluid flows through it by virtue of a pressure differential across the filter. Gravity is acting on the liquid column; the solids are trapped on the surface of the filter medium. After a particular point of time, the resistance offered by the filter cake is high that stops the filtration (Sambhamurthy , 2005). Types of filtration Based on the mechanism, there are 3 types of filtration which are surface filtration, depth filtration and cake filtration. Surface filtration It is a screening action by which pores or holes of the medium prevent the passage of solids. For this purpose, plates with holes or woven sieves are used (Matteson, 1987). An example is a cellulose membrane filter. Depth filtration This filtration mechanism retains particulate matter not only on the surface but also at the inside of the filter. It is extensively used for clarification. Ceramic filters and sintered filters are examples of depth filtration (Stephan, 2003). Case study of depth filtration (Carey, 2008): Several forces have driven changes in filtration technology during the last few decades, including environmental concerns, the health and safety of winery employees and wine quality. The major active component in traditional depth filtration is diatomaceous earth, which has several major problems. First, it is difficult to dispose because it does not decompose. Second, it can cause symptoms similar to coalminers black lung disease when inhaled over long periods of time. To overcome these drawbacks, cross flow filtration and ultra-filtration are being practiced in recent years. Cross flow filtration: It ranges between ultra-filtration and reverse osmosis and the nominal pore size of the membrane is typically below 1 nanometer (Wikipedia, 2012). Nano filtration membranes are still subject to scaling and fouling and often modifiers such as anti-scalants are required for use (Hillie, 2007). Ultra filtration: It is a pressure driven membrane transport process that has been applied on both the laboratory and industrial scale. It is becoming a powerful separation tool for the rapidly growing biotechnology industry (Goldsmith et al., 1974). Cake filtration By this mechanism, the cake accumulated on the surface of the filter is itself used as a filter. A filter consists of a coarse woven cloth through which a concentrated suspension of rigid particles is passed so that they bridge the holes and forma bed. Theory of filtration Depending on dispersing medium filtration theory is divided in two parts; Gas filtration Liquid filtration Gas filtration theory It mainly includes filtration of aerosols and lyosols. There are several mechanisms for this theory. They are as follows (Wilson Cavanagh, 1969). Diffusion deposition The trajectories of individual small particles do not coincide with the streamlines of the fluid because of Brownian motion. With decreasing particle size the intensity of Brownian motion increases and, as a consequence, so does the intensity of diffusion deposition. Direct interception This mechanism involves the finite size of particles. A particle is intercepted as it approaches the collection surface to a distance equal to its radius. Inertial deposition The presence of a body in the flowing fluid results in a curvature of the streamlines in the neighbourhood of the body. Because of their inertia, the individual particles do not follow the curved streamlines but are projected against the body and may deposit there. It is obvious that the intensity of this mechanism increases with increasing particle size and velocity of flow. Gravitational deposition Every particle has a definite sedimentation speed due to gravity. As a consequence, the particles deviate from the streamlines of the fluid and owing to this deviation; the particles may touch a fibre. Electrostatic deposition Both the particles and the fibres in the filter may carry electric charges. Deposition of particles on the fibres may take place because of forces acting between charges or induced forces. Liquid filtration theory The term solid-liquid filtration covers all processes in which a liquid containing suspended solid is freed of some or the entire solid when the suspension is drawn through a porous medium (Melia Weber, 1972). Kozeny Carman equation = . (1) Here, A = filter area V = total volume of filtrate delivered t = filtration time à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  P = pressure drop across cake and medium r = specific cake resistance  µ = filtrate viscosity l = cake thickness L = thickness of cake equivalent to medium resistance (Skilling, 2001). Limitations: This equation does not take into account of the fact that depth of the granular bed is lesser than the actual path traversed by the fluid. The actual path is not straight throughout the bed, but it is sinuous (Chowdiah et al., 1981). Poiseulles law This Law considered that filtration is similar to the streamline flow of a liquid under pressure through capillaries. = . (2) Cake resistance, RM = . (3) Specific cake resistance, ÃŽÂ ± = ÃŽÂ ±Ãƒâ€" ³Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  P. (4) The filter resistance is much less than the cake resistance (RC Filter media The filter medium acts as a mechanical support for the filter cake and it is responsible for the collection of solids (Srikanth, 2012). Minimum cake thickness of discharge for different types of filter is presented in Table 1 (Subramanyam et al., 2005). Table 1: Minimum cake thickness for discharge (Andrew et al., 2002) Filter type Minimum design thickness Belt 3.0-5.0 Roll discharge 1.0 Standard scraper 6.5 Coil 3.0-5.0 String discharge 6.5 Horizontal belt 3.0-5.0 Horizontal table 19.0 Materials used as filter media (Rushton, 2008) Different types of materials used as filter media for various applications industrially and domestically are presented in Table 2. Table 2: Type of filter media, features and their application (Patel R. et al, 2010). Type of filter media Features Application

catcher in the rye :: essays research papers

The Catcher in the Rye is the definitive novel of a young man’s growing pains, of growing up in pain. Growing up is a ritual – more deadly than religion, more complicated than baseball, for there seem to be no rules. Everything is experienced for the first time.† To What extent do you agree with this passage? Do you agree that Catcher in the Rye is the definitive novel of a young man’s growing pains, of growing up in pain? Do you agree that growing up is a ritual? You need to identify whether or not you agree with this passage, and then you need to justify/support your answer. I do agree with the statement classing Catcher in the Rye as â€Å"the definitive novel of a young man’s growing pains.† I do not agree with the statement â€Å"growing up is a ritual.† Certainly J.D. Salinger’s novel is focused around the pain of growing up; a novel about a young character’s growth into maturity, but this novel explores the process from a different perspective. Holden Caulfield is an unusual protagonist for supporting this theme because his central goal is to resist the process of maturity itself. According to Webster’s New World Dictionary, Holden’s last name Caulfield literally symbolizes caul, the membrane enveloping the head of a child at birth.† Holden fears change and is overwhelmed by complexity. Holden desires everything to be easily understandable and eternally fixed. During a visit to the museum of natural history Holden uses exhibits to explain his resistance to change, â€Å"The best thing, though, in that museum was that everything always stayed right where it was. Nobody’d move. You could go there a hundred thousand times, and that Eskimo would still be just finished catching those two fish. Nobody’d be different. The only thing that would be different would be you (Salinger, 121).† Holden resists maturity and is a frightened teenager, he is frightened because he is guilty of the sins he criticizes in others and because he cannot understand the world around him. Holden however, refuses to acknowledge this fear, expressing it only on a few occasions – for example, when he talks about sex admitting that â€Å"sex is something I just don’t understand. I swear to God I don’t (Salinger, 63).† Rather than acknowledging that adulthood scares and mystifies him, Holden invents a fantasy that adulthood is a world of superficiality and hypocrisy, while childhood is a world of innocence, curiosity and honesty. catcher in the rye :: essays research papers The Catcher in the Rye is the definitive novel of a young man’s growing pains, of growing up in pain. Growing up is a ritual – more deadly than religion, more complicated than baseball, for there seem to be no rules. Everything is experienced for the first time.† To What extent do you agree with this passage? Do you agree that Catcher in the Rye is the definitive novel of a young man’s growing pains, of growing up in pain? Do you agree that growing up is a ritual? You need to identify whether or not you agree with this passage, and then you need to justify/support your answer. I do agree with the statement classing Catcher in the Rye as â€Å"the definitive novel of a young man’s growing pains.† I do not agree with the statement â€Å"growing up is a ritual.† Certainly J.D. Salinger’s novel is focused around the pain of growing up; a novel about a young character’s growth into maturity, but this novel explores the process from a different perspective. Holden Caulfield is an unusual protagonist for supporting this theme because his central goal is to resist the process of maturity itself. According to Webster’s New World Dictionary, Holden’s last name Caulfield literally symbolizes caul, the membrane enveloping the head of a child at birth.† Holden fears change and is overwhelmed by complexity. Holden desires everything to be easily understandable and eternally fixed. During a visit to the museum of natural history Holden uses exhibits to explain his resistance to change, â€Å"The best thing, though, in that museum was that everything always stayed right where it was. Nobody’d move. You could go there a hundred thousand times, and that Eskimo would still be just finished catching those two fish. Nobody’d be different. The only thing that would be different would be you (Salinger, 121).† Holden resists maturity and is a frightened teenager, he is frightened because he is guilty of the sins he criticizes in others and because he cannot understand the world around him. Holden however, refuses to acknowledge this fear, expressing it only on a few occasions – for example, when he talks about sex admitting that â€Å"sex is something I just don’t understand. I swear to God I don’t (Salinger, 63).† Rather than acknowledging that adulthood scares and mystifies him, Holden invents a fantasy that adulthood is a world of superficiality and hypocrisy, while childhood is a world of innocence, curiosity and honesty.

Essay --

History has been written from the viewpoint of victors in every history textbook up to this point. In A Peoples History of the United States, Howard Zinn presents a report of history told from the perspective of the oppressed American people. It begins with the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492 and concludes with the result of the Gore and Bush 2000 presidential election. Zinn gives the unfiltered truth from educators in today's school systems. By establishing a perspective of everyday common people, as opposed to the familiar victors students have been taught in school systems, Zinn creates a recap of history that informs his readers on well known historical subjects. It describes scenarios overlooked by mainstream class books, and speaks for the voiceless. This engaging process of teaching is mind-altering, demonstrating how the roles of wealth, race, and gender play a role in American history. Why did Howard Zinn choose to base his novel on the oppressed people throughout history as opposed to the â€Å"heroes†? Zinn makes an important distinction from the start about his values towards the perspective and experiences of the oppressed over the view of the oppressor. Zinn prefered to recap the history of the US that was formerly swept under the rug. Zinn writes to show the outlook that is not presented in majority of history books, but he considered that his point of view is not the only one worth perceiving. He resolves that, â€Å"I don't want to invent victories for people's movements...I believe, emphasize new possibilities by disclosing those hidden episodes of the past when, even if in brief flashes, people showed their ability to resist, to join together, occasionally to win†(Zinn 11). Zinn intends to display the angle o... ...mansions; persons "of Quality" traveled in coaches or sedan chairs, had their portraits painted, wore periwigs, and filled themselves with rich food and Madeira..."In Newport, Rhode Island, Bridenbaugh found, as in Boston, that "the town meetings, while ostensibly democratic, were in reality controlled year after year by the same group of merchant aristocrats, who secured most of the important offices..."(Zinn 48). White Americans would describe this time period in a positive approach, due to the evidence that they have significance in the government. The victors have definite rights, wealth, and all the work drops on the backs of their slaves. In this time period, a person's social class and race determines what they experience throughout their lifetime. These actions arrange an altogether different story and outlook than those who endured a different lifestyle.